Female Leadership and Motivation to Lead – How can Women be Motivated to Take on Leadership Positions?
1. Research Question
Women are nowadays better represented in leadership roles than ever. According to the notion of a „female leadership advantage“ (Eagly & Carli, 2003), women – in contrast to men – tend to exercise more relationship-oriented leadership styles. Nevertheless, the female share in (top) management positions remains on a relatively low level. This research project analyzes boundary conditions which may contribute to close the female leadership gap. Besides factors such as the gender bias and the work-family-conflict (Diehl & Dzybinski, 2016), we suggest that female motivation to lead (MTL) can play a critical role.
Female motivation to lead has been analyzed based on Gender Role Theory (Eagly,1987), Role Congruity Theory (Eagly & Karau, 2002), and Status Characteristics Theory (Berger et al., 1972): The incongruity between the predominantly agentic (i.e., male) leadership stereotype on the one hand and the communal female gender stereotype on the other hand can reduce female motivation to lead. In our project, we investigate boundary conditions which may contribute to enhance female motivation to lead despite the notion of incongruity. More precisely, we aim to answer the following questions:
- (How) does female motivation to lead differ from male motivation to lead?
- How can female motivation to lead can be increased?
2. Analysis
Using a quantitative research design, the questions are investigated in different sub-projects.
3. First Results
(see: link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-658-41546-4)
- Differences between male and female motivation to lead tend to be small. First results suggest that women are not less motivated to take on leadership roles than men, but differently.
- Women who can refer to a same-sex role model in a leadership position are more strongly motivated to take on leadership positions than women without such a same-sex role model.
- Women who are aware of the general female strengths in leadership (i.e., who have high levels of female leadership strength awareness) are more strongly motivated to take on leadership positions than women without such awareness.
Literatur
Berger, J., Cohen, B. P., & Zelditch Jr., M. (1972). Status characteristics and social interaction. American Sociological Review, 37(3), 241–255.
Boerner, S. (2023). Female Leaders – Führen Frauen anders? Einblicke in die Leadership-Forschung für Wissenschaft und Praxis. Springer Gabler Wiesbaden. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-41546-4
Diehl, A.B., & Dzubinski, L.M. (2016). Making the invisible visible: A cross‐sector analysis of gender‐based leadership barriers. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 27, 181−206.
Eagly, A. H. (1987). Reporting sex differences. American Psychologist, 42(7), 756–757.
Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573−598.
Eagly, A. H., & Carli, L. L. (2003). The female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence. The Leadership Quarterly, 14(6), 807−834.
Leadership and resilience in the healthcare sector
High fluctuation rates and a large number of vacancies indicate that professions in the healthcare sector are associated with major challenges. This often leads to the employed nursing staff reaching their limits and developing mental health problems, which can result in deficiencies in patient care.
The project "Leadership and resilience in health care", which is developed in cooperation with K.O.M. GmbH Allensbach, addresses this problem and investigates how supervisors can contribute to strengthen the mental resistance of employees - also referred to as resilience - in hospitals and in patient care facilities. From the expected results, practical recommendations and interventions will be derived that can support nursing teams in their daily work. The project has the following objectives:
1. By increasing employees’ resilience in nursing teams, the attractiveness of the nursing profession can be improved and thus the shortage of skilled workers be countered.
2. By reducing the number of sick leave and fluctuation rates, the quality and the economic viability of nursing care can be improved.
3. The investigation of resilience at the team level enables a contribution to the extant research on the conditions and effects of resilience.
The current state of research and questions
Resilience is one of the most important resources for dealing successfully with stressful working conditions. The positive effects of resilience include mental health, proactive work behavior, commitment, improved team cooperation, and performance. In addition to specific training, the social context (e.g., social support, organizational climate) is discussed among the factors that can promote the development of resilience in the workplace and actively be shaped by managers.
Empirical findings from research in organizational psychology show that leadership can have a positive influence on employees’ individual resilience. However, resilience has hardly been examined as a team level construct so far. Against this background, the project investigates how managers in German hospitals and nursing homes can contribute to build and strengthen resilience in nursing teams. We are pursuing two questions:
1. How can managers support nursing teams in hospitals and nursing homes to establish resilience?
To answer this question, we examine how different forms of leadership affect the resilience of nursing teams. We consider factors at the team level (e.g., team mental models) as well as factors at the individual level (e.g., employees’ individual resilience).
2. What effects does team resilience have on the work results in nursing teams?
In order to answer this question, we investigate how the resilience of the nursing teams affects relevant work results. Here, we take into account factors both at the team level (e.g., length of stay, sick leave) and at the individual level (e.g., job satisfaction, perceived level of stress).
Investigation model
Our theoretical model depicts the conditions and effects of resilience in nursing teams and can be described using classic input-output logic (cf. Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Conditions and effects of resilience, modified according to Kirkmann et al. (2018)
Input and thus the central condition for the emergence and promotion of resilience is the leadership behavior of direct superiors of the respective nursing staff. Here we distinguish between classical formal leadership (i.e., "empowering leadership" and "transformational leadership") and informal "shared leadership" on the other. In the case of shared leadership, team members themselves participate temporarily in leadership tasks. We assume that any of these leadership styles may contribute to promote individual resources (e.g., self-efficacy) and team resources (e.g., team potency), thereby increasing both individual resilience and team resilience. Team members’ individual resilience will reduce their perception of stress and increase their job satisfaction. Moreover, it will contribute to establish resilience at the team level. In turn, the achieved level of team resilience can add to shortening hospital stays as well as reducing sick leave and fluctuation rates in the nursing teams.
Research method
In order to gain well-founded results that adequately reflect the working reality of nursing staff, supervisors and employees of nursing teams in hospitals and nursing homes are interviewed. The recruitment of the hospitals, care homes and teams is carried out by K.O.M. GmbH. In order to be able to make valid statements about the situation in hospitals and nursing teams, we are aiming for a sample of around 40-50 teams in both facilities. Within the framework of a longitudinal section analysis, we collect panel data to be able to examine causal relationships. For this purpose, validated measuring instruments from research in organizational psychology are included in a standardized questionnaire and used at three different points in time as part of an online survey. The data is collected and processed anonymously so that no conclusions can be drawn about individual members of nursing teams at any time. Upon request, the participating institutions may receive feedback from K.O.M. GmbH on the average values of the teams surveyed (e.g., leadership behavior, team resilience). The resulting panel data will allow statements about the effect of leadership behavior on the resilience of nursing teams and the effects of team resilience on team work results.
Publications
Boerner, S., Hüttermann, H., & Reinwald, M. (2017). Effektive Führung heterogener Teams: Wie kann das Erfolgspotential von Diversity genutzt werden? Gruppe.Interaktion.Organisation. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO), 48(1), 41-51. Doi: 10.1007/s11612-017-0357-7 .
Boerner, S., Keding, H., & Hüttermann, H. (2012). Gender Diversity und Organisationserfolg – eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung, 64(2), 37-70.
Hartmann, J., Boerner, S., & Hüttermann, H. (2013). Mehr Chefinnen = Mehr Erfolg? Personalmagazin, 4(13), 24-27.
Kröll, J., Szlusnus, T., Hüttermann, H., & Boerner, S. (2014). Sind gemischt-geschlechtliche Führungsteams erfolgreicher? Der Zusammenhang zwischen Mixed Leadership und Unternehmensperformanz. Betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung und Praxis, Heft 6, Sonderheft „Diversity Management“, 604-627.
Reinwald, M., Hüttermann, H., Kröll, J., & Boerner, S. (2015). Gender Diversity in Führungsteams und Unternehmensperformenz: Eine Meta-Analyse. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung, 67, 262-296.
Muethel, M., Gehrlein, S., & Hoegl, M. (2012). Socio-demographic factors and shared leadership behaviors in dispersed teams: Implications for human resource management. Human Resource Management, 51(4), 525–548. doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21488
The participation of women in shared leadership
Research Question
Shared leadership¹ refers to a leadership style that is characterized by team members influencing each other to achieve common goals (Pearce & Conger, 2003). This leadership style is complementary to formal leadership (Nikolaides et al., 2014) and promotes team performance beyond the impact of formal leadership (D'Innocenzo et al., 2014). The research project focuses on the question of how and under what boundary conditions women participate in shared leadership in gender-mixed teams, i.e., how they assume informal leadership roles.
The starting point is the ambivalent theoretical state of research on the connection between gender diversity and team performance. In line with contradicting theoretical expectations, empirical findings on the connection between gender diversity and various performance indicators have so far been ambiguous: in primary studies, there are positive as well as negative and non-significant results; meta-analytical studies do not show a clear connection between gender diversity and performance. These findings indicate that boundary conditions (i.e., facilitators) could play a role. Such conditions of the connection between gender diversity and performance have already been examined in isolated cases, but the results to date do not permit any clear conclusions. Against this background, a more precise understanding of the processes in mixed-gender teams is important.
In research on shared leadership, gender diversity has been identified as an antecedent of shared leadership. More specifically, the proportion of female members increases the extent of shared leadership in a team (Muethel, Gehrlein & Hoegl, 2012). One argument in favour of women participating in shared leadership (i.e., the so-called "female advantage") is that shared leadership requires a collegial management style and that several temporary leadership roles are to be assigned in teams that practice shared leadership (Mendez & Busenbark, 2015). So far, however, the question of equal participation of women in shared leadership has not been empirically clarified and different theoretical assumptions suggest both the possibility of stronger and weaker participation of women. In particular, the Gender Role Theory (Eagly, 1987) and the Status Characteristics Theory (Berger et al., 1972) imply that status differences and social stereotypes tend to be an obstacle to women's participation: "If one important purpose of shared leadership is to reduce power and status inequalities and increase the contributions from all members, social stereotypes and status differences between men and women are likely to be a barrier for this result" (Mendez & Busenbark, 2015, p.29).
Based on the Construction of Leadership Theory (DeRue & Ashford, 2010), we investigate under which conditions women in teams practicing shared leadership develop not only a follower identity but also a leader identity and to what extent this identity is supported by the members of the team and the formal leader.
Approach
To answer the research question, we will analyse the participation of women in shared leadership in gender-mixed teams. By using network analysis, we will determine the extent to which team members assign leadership roles to male or female team members. The analysis will be guided by questions such as: What leadership relationships do women maintain in the team? Are women more likely to lead or to follow? Which leadership roles do women assume? Under what conditions do women take on leadership roles in the team?
1"A dynamic, interactive influence process among individuals in groups for which the objective is to lead one another to the achievement of group or organizational goals" (Pearce & Conger 2003, p.1).
Publications
Boerner, S., Hüttermann, H., & Reinwald, M. (2017). Effektive Führung heterogener Teams: Wie kann das Erfolgspotential von Diversity genutzt werden? Gruppe.Interaktion.Organisation. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO), 48(1), 41-51. Doi: 10.1007/s11612-017-0357-7.
Boerner, S., Keding, H., & Hüttermann, H. (2012). Gender Diversity und Organisationserfolg – eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung, 64(2), 37-70.
Hartmann, J., Boerner, S., & Hüttermann, H. (2013). Mehr Chefinnen = Mehr Erfolg? Personalmagazin, 4(13), 24-27.
Kröll, J., Szlusnus, T., Hüttermann, H., & Boerner, S. (2014). Sind gemischt-geschlechtliche Führungsteams erfolgreicher? Der Zusammenhang zwischen Mixed Leadership und Unternehmensperformanz. Betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung und Praxis, Heft 6, Sonderheft „Diversity Management“, 604-627.
Reinwald, M., Hüttermann, H., Kröll, J., & Boerner, S. (2015). Gender Diversity in Führungsteams und Unternehmensperformenz: Eine Meta-Analyse. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung, 67, 262-296.
Gender diversity and success: An analysis of the processes in gender-heterogeneous teams
Aim and Research Question
The subject of the research project is the question of which processes are taking place in gender-heterogenous (leadership-) teams and which are the connections between those teams and the organizational factors of success.
The strating point is the ambivalent research om the relationship between gender diversity and success. The research on gender heterogeneity in teams works with the common contrary assumptions of the general research on diversity: the information/decision perspective assumes a positive and the social categorization perspective a negative effect of heterogeneity on (team) performance. So far, there is no model that depicts the processes that take place in mixed-gender teams (i.e, moderators and mediators of the relationship between gender diversity and success).
As expected, the epirical results on the relationship between gender diversity and various indicators of success are ambiguous. Both at the management level and below: there are positive, negative and non-significant results. These contrary findings indicate that boundary conditions of critical success (i.e. moderators) could play a major role. The conditions of the relationship between gender diversity and success have already been examinded, but the results don't allow any definite conclusions.
For this purpose, a deeper understanding of the cooperation in mixed-gender teams is essential. Therefore, the aim of this project is the investigation of the actual processes in heterogeneous teams. The leading question is about the conditions under which gender diversity contributes positively to success.
Procedure
An inductive approach can be used to answer the research question. Therefore, qualitative interviews with members of mixed-gender teams are carried out. Both management teams and teams without management responsibility are regarded. Following a systematic content analysis, a theoretical model is developed. The model describes the processes in mixed-gender teams.
Publications
Boerner, S., Hüttermann, H., & Reinwald, M. (2017). Effektive Führung heterogener Teams: Wie kann das Erfolgspotential von Diversity genutzt werden? Gruppe. Interaktion.Organisation. Zeitschrift für Angewandte Organisationspsychologie (GIO) 48(1), 41-51. Doi: 10.1007/s11612-017-0357-7.
Reinwald, M., Hüttermann, H., Kröll, J., & Boerner, S. (2015). Gender Diversity in Führungsteams und Unternehmensperformenz: Eine Meta-Analyse. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung 67, 262-296.
Kröll, J., Szlusnus, T., Hüttermann, H., & Boerner, S. (2014). Sind gemischt-geschlechtliche Führungsteams erfolgreicher? Der Zusammenhang zwischen Mixed Leadership und Unternehmensperformanz. Betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung und Praxis, Heft 6, Sonderheft „Diversity Management“, 604-627.
Boerner, S., Keding, H., & Hüttermann, H. (2012). Gender Diversity und Organisationserfolg – eine kritische Bestandsaufnahme. Zeitschrift für betriebswirtschaftliche Forschung, 64(2), 37-70.
Bürkert, J. (2013). Der Einfluss des Frauenanteils auf den Unternehmenserfolg. Unveröffentlichte Bachelorarbeit, Universität Konstanz.
Friedemann, T. (2013). Gender Diversity und Performanz in Top-Management Teams: Unter welchen Randbedingungen macht Geschlechterheterogenität einen Unterschied? Eine Metaanalyse. Unveröffentliche Bachelorarbeit, Universität Konstanz.
Hartmann, J., Boerner, S., & Hüttermann, H. (2013). Mehr Chefinnen = Mehr Erfolg? Personalmagazin, 4(13), 24-27.
Reinwald, M. (2013). Der Zusammenhang zwischen Gender Diversity in Führungsteams und Unternehmensperformanz - Eine Metaanalyse. Unveröffentlichte Semesterarbeit, Universität Konstanz.
Szlusnus, T. (2013). Gender Diversity In Top Management And Organisational Performance: A Review Of Extant Research. Unveröffentlichte Bachelorarbeit, Universität Konstanz.